Kanbun Kundoku 漢文訓読—the basics of reading Classical Chinese texts as if they were Japanese
I’ve been trying to figure out how this stuff makes any sense in the first place for years. The methodology on Wikipedia is helpful not but enough for me to figure out how to do it myself on a novel piece of text. The idea is that you have a novel piece of Classical Chinese text, you put in a whole bunch of annotations to swap the word order, and then read it as if it’s a piece of Classical Japanese text, and then translate that into Modern Japanese. That’s a lot of intermediate steps that are just wholly unnecessary. But let us entertain the idea for the moment, as though it’s actually a methodology that works instead of just recognizing that Literary Chinese is a whole ass language unto itself.
Source: 高等学校国語(国語総合古典)漢文入門(訓読の基礎)
The examples listed are all printed vertically. I cannot flip them and maintain both margins of okurigana 送り仮名 so you're just going to have to open the pdf in another tab to see the full thing.
書き下し文 kakioroshi bun How to write a proper Classical Japanese Translation based on these annotations.
- Orient your text so it's vertical.
- Make your okurigana notations, with particles and verb conjugations in the right margin, and kaeriten in the left margin. By convention, write everything in katakana unless a character represents a joshi or jodoushi; those can be hiragana.
- Rewrite your sentence in the correct order.
- Remove all the "unpronounceable".
- Double check the "double pronounced" particles have their corresponding adverb + jodoushi circumflex. the adverb should remain in kanji.
- Rewrite whatever is outstanding in katakana as hiragana.
Introductory example
寧為鶏口無為牛後
Quick correction: 鶏 a JP variant character. Let’s swap in the right “chicken”.
寧為雞口無為牛後 ning4 wei2 ji1 kou3 wu2 wei2 niu2 hou4
It is preferable to become the chicken’s mouth; do not become the cow’s behind. 《戰國策·韓策一》Strategies of the Warring states
Then the example starts adding in okurigana in the margins
寧ロ為ルトモ雞口ト無カレ為ル牛後ト
And the reordering okurigana marks in the other margin.
寧為二雞口一、無ㇾ為二牛後一
The result of this produce the following kakioroshi 書き下ろし
= 寧ろ雞口と為るとも牛後と為る無かれ むしろけいこうとなるともぎゅうごとなるなかれ
Better to be the beak of a rooster than the rump of a bull.
ALSO IN JUKUGO FORM AS 鶏口牛後
better to be the leader of a small group than the subordinate in a large one.
So far, so good, right? Alright, next example.
返り点 kaeriten Return marks
The article lists 5 varieties. 1. ㇾ点 2. 一・二点 3. 上・中・下点 (other variations include 甲・乙・丙 and 天・地・人) 4. Combination 一レor 上レ点 5. ー点 (as in 長音符 not 漢数字)
ㇾ点 means swap with the character directly after.
読書 不好学
Again I need to swap in the proper Traditional Chinese versions of JP variant characters.
讀書 du4 shu1 不好學 bu4 hao3 xue2
讀ㇾ書 becomes 書読 = 書ヲ読ム しょをよむ
[I] read a document. (This is too common a phrase to track down)
不ㇾ好ㇾ學 becomes 學好不 = 学ヲ好マず がくをこのまず
Without the love of learning. (《論語・陽貨篇》Analects of Confucius Book 17 Yang Huo)
一・二点 when you find a 二, skip it, and keep going until you find a 一, then double back to the character marked 二.
借虎威 jie4 hu3 wei1
懸羊頭売狗肉 xuan2 yang2 tou2 mai4 gou3 rou4
Swapping Japanese variant characters for Traditional Chinese ones... I can't render the okurigana at their proper size. Bear with me while try to use color instead.
借二虎威一 懸二羊頭一賣二狗肉一
借二虎威一 becomes 虎威借 =虎ノ威ヲ借ル とらのいをかる
[To] borrow the tiger's majesty. Possibly also from《戰國策·韓策一》Strategies of the Warring states
懸二羊頭一賣二狗肉一 becomes 羊頭懸狗肉賣
=羊頭ヲ懸ケテ、狗肉ヲ賣ル ようとうをかけて、くにくをうる
[To] put up a sheep's head and sells dog meat. Possibly from 五燈會元 or 續傳燈錄 volume 31
Note: Other sources say this idiom may use 掲げる instead of 懸ける.
ALSO IN JUKUGO FORM AS 羊頭狗肉
deceptive advertisement, bait and switch, cry wine and sell vinegar.
上・中・下点 are the next size up from 一・二点 so you double back in larger segments. Skip 下 and keep going until you find 上, then double back to 中 if there is one, and then finally to 下.
It appears 下 is usually attached to a main verb where a Chinese sentence is SVO so the main verb is significantly higher than where you would expect for a Japanese sentence.
有能為狗盗者 you3 neng2 wei2 gou3 dao4 zhe3 欲上青天覧日月 yu4 shang4 qing1tian1 lan3 ri4 yue4
need to make another desimplification...
有下能為二狗盗一者上 欲下上二青天一覽中日月上
有下能為二狗盗一者上 becomes 能狗盗為者有 = 能ク狗盗ヲ為ス者有リ よくくどうをなすものあり
There is a person who is a skilled cat burglar. From 雞鳴狗盜 by 孟嘗君 Lord Mengchang of Qi
欲下上二青天一覽中日月上 becomes 青天上日月覧欲 = 青天ニ上ガリテ日月ヲ覧ムト欲ス せいてんにあがりてじつげつをみむとほっす
I want to ascend in the blue sky and take a good look at the sun and moon. From《宣州謝脁楼餞別校書叔云》by Li Bai 李白. There is an alternate version of this line as well.
Combination 一レor 上レ点 swap with next first, then double back.
従心所欲 cong2 xin1 suo3 yu4
to do as one pleases
勿以悪小為之 wu4 yi3 e3 xiao3 wei2 zhi1
Yet more substitutions...
從二心所一ㇾ欲
Becomes 從二心欲所一 Becomes 心欲所從 = 心ノ欲スル所ニ從フ こころのよくするところにしたがふ
[To] follow the
placething which the heart desires
勿下以二惡小一為上ㇾ之
Becomes 勿下以二惡小一之為上
Becomes 惡小以之為勿 = 悪ノ小ナルヲ以テ之ヲ為スコト勿カレ あくをしょうなるをもってこれをなすことなかれ
Do not do evil, no matter how small Allegedly a partial quote from 三國志 Record of Three Kingdoms
ー点 Long vowel mark links two characters together as a jukugo. Keep with next.Do not separate.
平定海内 ping2ding4 hai3nei4
And another substitution...
平二ー定海內一 Becomes 海內平定 =海内ヲ平定ス かいだいをへいていす
[To] conquer the whole country from 《秦楚之際月表》 by Sima Qian 司馬遷
置き字 okiji Unpronounced characters
Okiji are characters fill the responsibilities of grammatical case and particles, conjunctions, adverbs, verb tense and mood, emphasis, etc. Because their use case will be reflected in the inflected okurigana in the right margin, they do not need to be “pronounced” when read aloud.
Three groups of grammatical particles are listed. 1. 於・于・乎 2. 而 3. 焉・矣
於・于・乎 general purpose locative preposition.
These are all effectively に. Edwin Pulleyblank's Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar says that 于 yu2 is closer to the coverb “to go” but eventually 於 yu2 and 于 yu2 overlapped to the point where they became identical. 乎 hu1 is also a locative but it has a different set of uses as a sentence final particle, closer to や (?) or かな (!).
墜於水 zhui4 yu2 shui3 生乎吾前 sheng1 hu1 wu2 qian2
墜二於水一 becomes 於水墜 = 水ニ 墜ツ みずにおつ
[His sword] fell in the water. From 呂氏春秋 Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals
生二乎吾前一 becomes 乎吾前生 =吾ガ前ニ 生マル わがまえにうまる
[He] was born before me. From “Master spoke”《師說》 by 韓愈 Han Yu
而 general purpose conjunction
而 Er2 connects two clauses at the verb. You can just scribble in て after the first verb in most cases.
伏而喜 fu2 er2 xi3
心不在焉視而不見 xin1 bu4 zai4 yan1 shi4 er2 bu4 jian4
伏而喜 =伏シテ喜ブ
[They all] bowed down and rejoiced. From 《朝三暮四》
心不ㇾ在ㇾ焉視而不ㇾ見
Becomes 心焉在不視而見不 =心焉在ラざレバ、視レドモ見エず
When the mind is not present, we look without seeing. From the Book of Rights 禮記 Great Learning《大學》
ALSO AS A JUKUGO 心不在焉 “Absent-minded”, “preoccupied”
焉・矣・兮
Now this is where I start calling bullshit. Slide 9 wants me to assume that 焉 and 矣 are emphatic particles. This is naïve at best.
焉 yan1 = 於 yu2 +之 zhi1 where 之 is an object pronoun. This guide makes it seem as though 之 is equivalent to a possessive particle but from what I read in class, 8 times out of 10, it's an object pronoun.
矣 yi3 is perfect aspect. You can pencil in ~けり even though the example sentences on slide 7 don't use it that way.
兮 xi1 I cannot find in Pulleyblank, but mdbg.net says it's an old particle similar to modern 啊. I'd assume it's functionally the same as sentence terminal よ or わ
Everything after this on the pdf is basically a hot mess.
三人行必有我師焉 san1 ren2 xing2 bi4 you3 wo3 shi1 yan1
you have something to learn from everyone From the Analects of Confucius Book 7《論語·述而》
三人行必有二我師一焉 Becomes 三人行必我師有 = 三人行ヘバ、必ズ我ガ師有リ
When the three [of us] walk, they shall surely be my teachers
I don't love this translation because it ignores the entire use case for 焉 yan1. In modern Chinese, 焉 means “where” or “how. In classical, it is a contraction of the locative yu2 於 and the object pronoun 之 zhi1. To fix it, I would add “among them” to the tail end of the sentence.
朝聞道夕死可矣 chao2 wen2 dao4, xi1 si3 ke3 yi3
If a man in the morning hear the right way, he may die in the evening without regret. From the Analects of Confucius Book 4 verse 8 《論語・里仁》
I don't love this translation either. Pulleyblank says that 矣 yi3 indicate a verb has perfect aspect, and weblio.jp says it's merely an emphatic particle. English usually represents a perfect aspect with either a past tense verb, but the conditional structure does not allow for 死 to be past tense as it has not happened yet.
朝聞ㇾ道夕死可矣 Becomes 朝道聞夕死可矣 =朝ニ道ヲ聞カバ、夕ニ死ストモ可ナリ
When [someone] listens to the [correct] path in the morning, in the evening death has been permitted.
I don't love this either, but at least the 矣 yi3 is compensated for.
再読文字 saidoku moji Characters read twice.
Being pronounced twice is really just a Japanese problem. If you plug in an English adverb you don't need to deal with this nonsense.
- 未 wei4 never, not yet
- 将 jiang1 future aspect
- 且 qie3 moreover
- 當 dang1 exactly as
- 應 ying4 ought
- 須 xu1 must
- 宜 yi2 should, proper
- 猶 you2 still, yet, as if
- 蓋 gai4 probably, for [reason]
These are all characters which would require both an adverb and an auxiliary verb to be represented properly in Japanese. First you read them as the adverb, then you tack the proper auxiliary onto the verb at the end of the clause. The okurigana for the adverb will be on the right side margin, while the jodoushi will be on the bottom left of the same character.
This is such a pain of an exercise I'm not even going to bother with the kaeriten in the write up.
未知生 = 未だ生ヲ知ラず
老將至 = 老イテ将に至ラントす
且飲之 = 且に之ヲ飲マントす
及時當勉励 = 時ニ及ンデ当に勉励スべし
應知故郷事 = 応に故郷ノ事ヲ知ルべし
須盡酔 = 須らく酔ヒヲ尽クスべし
宜為王 = 宜しく王為ルべし
過猶不及 = 過ギラルハ猶ほ及バザルガごとし
蓋反其本 = 蓋ぞ其ノ本ニ反ラざる
Particles to render in Hiragana during Kakioroshi
助詞 Joshi
- 之 zhi1 sometimes it's possessive, but like 80% of the time it's object pronoun
- 自 zi4・従 cong2 "to follow", from
- 與 yu3 is either 也乎 or "to accompany"
- 者 zhe3 = は is super oversimplifying it. This marks subject of a verb. He who verbs.
- 也 ye3 = predicate. in most cases it's not なり.
- 耶 ye2 = (?)
- 邪 ye2 = (?) but it's also not to be confused with xie2 evil
- 爾 er3 = thus, except when it's the pronoun "you"
- 已 yi3 = already, or functionally "this is new knowledge for the speaker"
- 耳 er3 = 而 + 已
- 矣 yi3 = perfect aspect
- 乎 hu1, 哉 zai1, 夫 fu2 = (?) or (!) in terminal position only!
- (夫 fu2 = demonstrative pronoun, in initial position it also introduces a topic with a wider scope than 者 zhe3) (edited)
助動詞 Jodoushi
- 不 bu4 is ず but you can just cut to the chase and use ない
- 見 jian4 speaker is the patient of a passive verb.
- 被 bei4 "receive, undergo, suffer" is used more in modern Chinese to indicate a passive
- 可 ke3 it's sometimes べし but it's actually a stand alone verb for "permit" leading to its modern usage of "can/may"
- 如 ru2 ごとし is fine as a stand alone. gets more flavor with a friend. (不如 bu4 ru2 not as good as, 何如 he2 ru2 like what?, 莫如 mo4 ru2 nothing else is like it.)
- 若 ruo4 i don't think it's so much ごとし as it is 合わせる
- 也 ye3 see above. It has some more uses I'm not listing.
- 為 wei2 and wei4 are different. wei2 is a verb to do. wei4 introduces a cause.
- 使 shi3 "send, employ" , 教 jiao1 "teach" idk why this is here, 令 ling4 "order", 遣 quan2 "dispatch". Other than jiao1, all of these are causative or “suppose if”.
In conclusion: the moment you actually look at Classical Chinese as Chinese instead of weirdly rendered Japanese code, all this shit falls apart.
I'm just thinking about this outline of rules and I'm like, this whole thing falls apart if I gave you my actual chinese homework. 道可道非常道 should be 道は道にあるべかれど常なる道あらず。 but the intermediate steps to get there are wholly unfacilitated by the above processes.